Relevant Literature

Relevant Literature on Human Rights in Africa

African Platform for Action adopted by the Fifth Regional Conference on Women

held at Dakar from 16 to 23 November 1994

II. GLOBAL AND REGIONAL PERSPECTIVES

A. Global perspective

2. In accordance with the proclamation of the United Nations General Assembly, 1975 was designated as International Women's Year (IWY), when the first intergovernmental Conference on Women was convened in Mexico City with the themes of Equality, Development and Peace. The Declaration of Mexico on the Equality of Women and their Contribution to Development and Peace and the World Plan of Action for the implementation of the objectives of International Women's Year were the major outcomes of the Conference. Since the 1970s, all United Nations agencies have been mandated by their governing bodies to incorporate a gender perspective and gender responsible policies and plans as a priority area in their programmes. The United Nations declared 1976-1985 as a Decade for Women to be devoted to effective and sustained national, regional and international action to implement the World Plan of Action and related resolutions. In 1979, the United Nations adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. In July 1980, the second World Conference on Women was convened in Copenhagen to assess the progress made since the first World Conference and to outline actions to be taken during the second half of the Decade for Women. Three sub-themes were added to the theme of equality, development and peace, namely education, employment and health. To mark the end of the Women's Decade, the United Nations convened the third World Conference on Women in Nairobi in July 1985. The Nairobi Conference adopted the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women up to the year 2000.

3. Since the adoption of Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women in 1985, major political, economic, social and cultural changes have taken place. These have had both positive and negative effects on women and it is against the backdrop of the impact of these global changes on the African region that this Platform for Action has been formulated.

4. The gender perspective and its incorporation in all policy decisions is of paramount importance in engendering equality, development and peace.

Overall, many Governments have globally adopted strategies for the enhancement of women's status and skills, their mainstreaming and their involvement in key decision- making. However, what is still lacking in most countries, is the total political commitment and the necessary resource allocation without which the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies will remain unfulfilled aspirations.

5. The expectations for greater global security and a just, equitable and non-discriminatory international economic order have not been realized.

In addition, international financial institutions and new world trade arrangements and agreements have assumed larger roles in global affairs and have failed to halt the economic decline in many African countries. There has been a reduction in external assistance flow and the depressed demand for African primary commodities have significantly reduced export earnings. In addition, the heavy debt burden has exacerbated the already depressed economic situation. Regrettably, the interdependent world economy continues to be marked by uncertainty, imbalance, recessions and eventually this has led to the continuing marginalization of developing countries. Numerous interrelated global factors therefore impinge on the lives of women in Africa, affecting both their productive and reproductive roles. The emergence of the political democratization process has ushered in competitive multi-party system whose positive impact on women is yet to be felt.

B. Regional perspective

6. The first Regional Conference on the Integration of Women in Development was held in Nouakchott, Mauritania in 1977 to review progress made by African member States, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations operating in Africa in the implementation of the Regional Plan of Action adopted at the World Conference on Women in Mexico City in 1975. The second Regional Conference for the Integration of Women in Development was held in Lusaka, Zambia in 1979 to review the progress made for the Integration of Women in Development and to prepare for the second World Conference on Women in Copenhagen, Denmark, in July 1980. The third Regional Conference on Women was held in Arusha, United Republic of Tanzania in 1984 to review and appraise progress achieved and obstacles encountered in attaining the goals for women; to adopt forward-looking strategies for the advancement of women in Africa to the year 2000; and to arrive at a common African position for the forthcoming Nairobi World Conference on Women.

7. The fourth Regional Conference on Women was held in Abuja, Nigeria, in November 1989 to provide a forum for a thorough review and assessment of the extent of implementation of the Arusha Strategies by Governments, United Nations bodies, NGOs, etc.; consider emerging socio-economic problems that are affecting the lives of African women, and to reassess the priorities stated in the Arusha Strategies and make appropriate recommendations for the future. It adopted the Abuja Declaration on Participatory Development: The Role of Women in Africa in the 1990s whose objectives aimed at defined targets to be achieved in various sectors by the year 2000 in the areas of education, science and technology, agriculture and food production, environment, decision-making and mainstreaming, population issues, women and culture, etc.

8. Other regional milestones that have impacted upon the political, socio- economic and cultural status of women in Africa have included, inter alia:

(a) The Lagos Plan of Action and Final Act of Lagos (1980);

(b) The Kilimanjaro Programme of Action on Population and

Self-Reliant Development (1984);

(1990);

(d) The Abuja Treaty establishing the African Economic Community (1991);

(e) The Dakar/Ngor Declaration on Population, Family and Sustainable

Development (1992);

(f) The Ouagadougou Declaration on the Education of Girls (1993);

(g) The Regional Conference on Women and Peace, and the Kampala Action Plan on Women and Peace (1993) which was adopted by the Council of Ministers of OAU at its sixtieth session held in Tunis in June 1994;

(h) Resolution CM/Res. 1550 (LX) on the preparation of the fourth World Conference on Women adopted by the Council of Ministers of OAU at its sixtieth session held in Tunis in June 1994;

(i) Resolution CM/Res. 1551 (LX) on population and development adopted by the Council of Ministers of OAU in July 1994.

9. In most of Africa, technological backwardness, natural disasters especially drought, disruptions from civil wars and political conflicts have contributed to the depressed economic activity and growth resulting in low per capita incomes. As a result, more countries have been pushed into the least developed country (LDC) category with extremely low income levels. Economic growth has also been constrained by external debt which at the end of 1993 stood at US$ 285.4 billion, with interest on arrears representing nearly 40 per cent. The debt structure has hardly changed over the last five years. The impact on economic growth has been mixed due to the inadequacy of external support and internal conflicts which have derailed the attainment of these objectives, resulting in their failure to reflect long-term development goals and the neglect of regional planning. This has adversely affected income levels and distribution and the capacity to deliver basic services.

10. These recurrent crises have affected the tempo and level of all economic development of Africa. Women more than men tend to bear the disproportionate burden of such crises, and they become greatly disadvantaged in participating effectively in any development ventures because of some negative practices emanating from traditional, cultural, religious and attitudinal constraints. Women, who make up more than 50 per cent of the populations affected by these crises, must contribute effectively to solving the numerous problems posed by these adverse conditions.

11. Indications of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations which were finally concluded in December 1993 and adopted and signed in April 1994 are that it will have negative effects on Africa's economic performance, depending on the region's ability to manage change and optimize technology for more efficient use of factors of production in an effort to raise its competitive status in international markets. It is also certain that agricultural subsidies will increase the food import bills of African countries. This will greatly affect the socio-economic status of women because of their total involvement with agricultural sector activities. The emergence of trade blocs and regional markets could also make it more difficult for the African region to maintain its traditional relationships with its European partners for much-needed resources. Accordingly, it is imperative that African Governments develop and adopt strategies to address this situation.

12. Economic decline, recession and the resultant economic restructuring in the face of external debt have led Governments to focus on the more pressing and immediate problems often to the neglect of longer-term issues that have direct bearing on the advancement of women. At the same time, pre-existing conditions of inequality between men and women, inter alia, in health and nutrition, levels of literacy and training, access to education and economic opportunity, and in participation in decision-making, have sometimes been exacerbated both by the crises and by the policies adopted to cope with them. In other words, such policies have compounded further the already disadvantaged situation of the women because they do not take account of their specific roles and concerns. They will also impact most adversely, the younger generation of women who will inherit this legacy. The policies do not effectively address the impact of restructuring on women and their multiple roles.

13. There is a democratization process sweeping the whole continent and women have been active participants as candidates for election, as voters and as observers of the election process in many countries. A good number of women have entered parliament through their own efforts, affirmative action and through the support of women and men, women's groups, non-governmental associations and organizations of women. Unfortunately, the number of African countries in political crisis, extremism and turmoil is on the increase. In addition, African Governments have yet to undertake comprehensive and concrete steps to promote pragmatically the integration of women as equal partners, particularly in politics, in popular participation and in key decision-making. There is need therefore to monitor the impact of democratization on women locally and nationally and to ensure that there are provisions for women's education and sensitization at all stages of their life, for more effective political participation.

14. Despite the commemoration of the International Year of the Family (IYF) in May 1994, the integrity of the African family is being seriously undermined by persistent socio-economic crises. The massive rural-urban migration and brain drain, consisting mostly of young men and women, has severely affected the socio-psychological and financial security of many families. In many African rural and urban communities, the number of female-headed households has steadily increased to a regional average of around 35 per cent. Rural-urban migration has also increased crime and violence, drug abuse, homelessness, unfavourable environmental conditions and sexual exploitation of women, young girls and boys.

15. Women's health and reproductive rights are central to the realization of their potential. The improvement of their health and their ability to exercise control over their fertility is a major step in enabling them to make the necessary choices in the other areas. African women's inability to control their own fertility is associated with the unacceptably high levels of infant, child and maternal mortality through a variety of appropriate, affordable and accessible services and the persistence of traditional mentalities hampering contraceptive practices.

16. African Governments are faced with new development challenges represented by the adolescent population. By the year 2000 there will be some 170 million youth - those aged 15-24 - in Africa. In some African countries, nearly two thirds of the cases of septic abortions come from the 15-19 age group. Adolescent sexuality and fertility is high risk from the health standpoint. It contributes significantly to girls' inability to attain high levels of education, and to unsafe abortion which leads to maternal mortality and morbidity. The hidden costs of adolescent sexuality and fertility are also enormous and they strain many health service delivery systems of many African Governments. This situation should be addressed urgently with appropriate policies and services.

17. The unprecedented increase in the number of refugees and displaced persons in the region is one of the major consequences of the protracted internal strife, civil wars and political instability in many countries of the region. According to UNHCR, the current refugee population in Africa is estimated at 7 million out of a world total of 20 million most of whom are women and children and there are also 25 million internally displaced persons.

18. Women form a large percentage of refugees and displaced persons in the Continent. Refugee and displaced women are particularly vulnerable and special attention should be paid to their protection needs. They also represent a useful resource whose potential should be tapped in the search of durable solution to the refugee problems. The refugee women's and girl's access to health, education and shelter should not be affected as the result of their need to flee from the areas of conflict.

19. Women's health should be viewed within a global approach dealing with all the health problems affecting them in their life cycle. Mortality problems relating to malaria, malnutrition, anaemia, tuberculosis, maternal ailments and sexually transmitted diseases such as AIDS, still remain preoccupying. World wide, AIDS is a health, social, economic and political issue. Africa is in the front line of the world-wide epidemic, with its younger generation being most at risk. The full dimensions of the epidemic in the region are still uncertain but it is already a grave problem in many countries in East, Central and Southern Africa. According to WHO, the number of new HIV infections among women in most African countries outnumber men by six to five, and more than 6 million women of child-bearing age have been infected. One out of every three pregnant women attending antenatal clinics in some major African urban centres is infected. Thus young women are being most seriously debilitated by the impact of the AIDS pandemic. The economic and social consequences of AIDS affect women the most with serious repercussions on the elderly women who are left to care for orphans when they are least capable. The subordinate position of women and adolescent girls, with younger women being the least empowered, and their lack of access to information, education and communication, health facilities, training, independent income, property and legal rights make them particularly vulnerable to the AIDS infection. They lack knowledge about the disease and the measures that have to be taken to protect themselves against HIV infection in spite of the key role they play and will continue to play in their response. Consequently, it is necessary to place emphasis on decreasing women's vulnerability to HIV/AIDS. The young of Africa not only face a bleak economic future, but are at present at risk from the spectre of the AIDS pandemic which continues to take a tremendous toll on those below 25 years of age. Education and information campaigns which target the sexual and reproductive health of the young must be increased and strengthened, made more accessible and culturally appropriate. However, besides HIV/AIDS, Africa continues to experience high mortality rates caused by other diseases such as malaria, sickle cell anaemia, tuberculosis, and ailments related to malnutrition.

20. During the last decade, African Governments have slowly started to show an increasing tendency to see the political and socio-economic participation of women as a key factor and catalyst in the processes and linkages that engender and encourage equality, health and development and peace for the accelerated advancement of women. In this respect, practically all Governments have established and given support to national machineries to discharge their responsibilities of coordinating and monitoring the incorporation of the gender perspective in overall national development activities. In addition, most African countries have enacted legislation against discriminatory practices with regard to education, employment as well as legislation in favour of paid maternity leave for women. Very few countries have adopted relevant legislative framework to ensure fair share of family responsibilities between men and women as stipulated in International Labour Convention No. 156 on Workers with family responsibilities.

21. Overall therefore, despite regional and individual efforts made by member States, the international community and local and international NGOs to improve the status of African women, only modest progress has been made and critical gaps still exist in several areas. The more glaring gaps are in relation to, inter alia, gender disparity in access to education, employment, health services, access to - and control of - productive resources and technology; underrepresentation in particular in the higher political, economic, social and decision-making levels; inadequacy of national machineries, policy and programmes for the enrichment of the women's cause; lack of availability and use of gender-disaggregated data; de jure and de facto discrimination with respect to employment opportunities; marital and family status; lack of awareness on the part of both women and men regarding the issue of women's legal and human rights; and lack of understanding of the legal and administrative systems and mechanisms for redress. A more detailed analysis of these gaps is given in the following section.