IV. CRITICAL AREAS OF CONCERN

29. In the regional review of the process and progress of implementation of the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies, several gaps and critical areas of concern have been identified at the national and regional levels. Others have been identified through technical workshops convened at national, sub regional and regional levels, with inputs from grassroots communities, women and women's organizations, national and international NGOs, intergovernmental bodies and United Nations agencies. The intention is to reflect a broad-based consensus on the critical areas of concern as well as the criteria used in the process of identifying these areas. They constitute the core of the African Platform for Action, viz:

A. Women, poverty, food security and economic empowerment;

B. Women, education, training, science and technology;

C. Women, culture, {{religion}}, the family and socialization;

D. Women's health, {{reproductive rights}}, family planning and population;

E. Women, environment and <<natural resource management>>

{{sustainable development;}}

F. Women in {{armed conflict sitations and}} the peace process;

G. The political empowerment of women, {{decision making and power sharing}};

H. Women's legal and human rights,

I. Mainstreaming of {{sex and race}} <<gender>>-disaggregated data.

{{J. Women, communication,information and the arts.}}

{{K. The girl child}}

{{L. Women in Agriculture}}

{{M. Women with special needs}}

It should be noted that these nine critical areas of concern are interdependent in terms of how they affect the implementation of the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies. Further, the order of presentation reflects the concerns of women in the African region but they are all of equal priority.

A. Women. poverty, food security and economic empowerment

30. Poverty manifests itself in various forms. Ultimately, the problem of poverty has its essential origin in lack of income, exclusion from the market and social and political life, unequal distribution of wealth and income from global, regional, sub regional to local levels, and these in turn are linked to the general political, economic and social conditions of a given country.

{{30(bis) Women with disabilities are the poorest of the poor.

They are affected by food insecurity both as women and because they are disabled. There is a need to target them directly in all economic development interventions.}}

31. In 1991, it was estimated that about 250 million people in Africa were living in abject poverty, unable to meet their most basic needs. This situation is related to complex internal and external factors. The legacy of the economic crisis of the 1980s {{has been worsend by the introduction of the structural adjustment program (SAP) which has led to the devaluation of the currencies, reduction in public sector expenditures, privatization and deregulation of the economy}}. <<is still in evidence, especially the deteriorating>> {{The}} social and human conditions {{of poverty have escalated}} <<and escalating poverty.>> In 1993, for example, infant mortality averaged 103 per 1000 in sub-Saharan Africa compared to 71 per 1000 for all developing countries. In the same year, under-5 mortality rates were estimated at 16 per cent per 1000 live births in sub-Saharan Africa. Between 1985 and 1990, only 5 per cent of urban population in Africa had access to sanitation facilities compared to 16 percent for the rural population. During the same period, access to safe water covered only 68 per cent in the urban areas and 26 per cent in the rural areas. For all Africa, calories per capita per day averaged 2,100 in 1993 while protein per capita per day was 53 grams compared to a world average of 1,697 calories and 71 grams consecutively.

32. In 1993, women constituted approximately 52 per cent of the population. They provide 60 to 80 per cent of the food supply and represent the greater proportion of the unemployed, earning only 10 per cent of the income while owning only I per cent of the assets.

Women are the backbone of both cash crop and subsistence farming, yet are denied the tools for sustainability. They still confront considerable discrimination that constitutes a major obstacle to increased productivity. The number of female-headed households is increasing and is now around 35 per cent while the feminization of poverty has become a reality.

33. To compound all this, many African countries are also experiencing critical situations in terms of food security and agricultural products. Once a net exporter of food, since the 1980s the region has become a net importer and hunger and malnutrition continue to be a critical human problem, affecting particularly women and children. Since 1960, the population in Africa has increased at an annual rate of 3 per cent while food production grew by only an average of 1.8 per cent with the food self-sufficiency ratio dropping from 100 per cent in 1960 to 81 per cent in the 1990s. Approximately 25 per cent of food requirements are imported including food aid. {{The annual food imports are equivalent to roughly 30% of Africa's agricultural export earnings}} <<thus diverting scarce foreign exchange from more important uses to pay for food imports. >>. {{The scarce foreign exchange earnings are used to pay the debts and food imports}}.

Security and self-sufficiency are therefore not related to food alone, but to the general and pervasive problem of poverty, unequal distribution of income and weaker purchasing power.

34. Women in Africa must be empowered to participate in economic structures and policies, in employment and in the productive process itself. It has now been widely recognized that the contribution of rural women in Africa is critical to development.

The African Platform for Action, in line with the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies and the Abuja Declaration, emphasizes the economic empowerment of women through stimulating, consolidating and coordinating the entrepreneurial spirit of African women and providing increased access to both formal and informal sector resources. Women's empowerment will also enhance their capacity to realistically alter the direction of change in favour of their well-being. Consequently, strategies and actions are needed in order to move away from the current welfare orientation to address the economic empowerment of women; stem the growing disparity between rural and urban conditions; and move towards environmentally sustainable actions for poverty alleviation through sustainable development. The actions proposed by the Platform are based on the recognition of women's own responses to increasingly difficult and changing productive and economic circumstances based on their know-how, initiatives and capacities.

{{WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE

34(bis)Women are the backbone of both cash crop and subsistence farming. In 193, women constituted approximately 52 percent of the population. They provide 60-80 percent of the cash crops and food supply. Despite their importance in the sector, that drives most African economies, they are denied the resources for its sustainability and they still confront considerable discrimination that constitutes a major obstacle to increased productivity.

A major obstacle is the continued non-recogintion of the praimary role of women in agriculture. It goes unreported, unrecorded and unremunerated by official sources.

Cultural practicies combine with women's poor access to control of land, property, access to credit, technology and training, and impact negatively on national development.

Nomadic pastoralism needs special attention in agricultural policy. Pastoralist livelihood Systems should be recognized, supported and improved upon to enhance their sustainability.

The persistent economic crisis in African countries have particularly undermined agriculture and food security. Prices of conventional agricultural inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, labor technology are now too high for most farmers. Women bear the burden of the crisis because their already poor access to agricultural productive resources has become even more limited. As a result of this crisis, since 1980, the region which was once a net exporter of food is now a net importer. Hunger and malnutrition continue to be a critical human problem affecting particularly women and children.

Women's abiltiy to produce food has become seriously impaired such that Africa's annual food imports are now roughly equivalent to 30% of Africa's agricultural export earnings.

Women in Africa must be empowered and supported to explore and implement sustainable agricultural approaches, technologies that enhance productivity without harming the environment. Such alternatives combine conventional agriculture with alternative techniques for increased sustainable production.}}

B. Women, education, training, science and technology

35. Education has major implications for social development. In addition to the inverse relationship between female education and high levels of fertility. education at the first and second levels impacts positively on infant mortality rates. Life expectancy, under-5 child mortality and maternal mortality rates and morbidity.

The process involved in transforming societies makes education of the populace an imperative.

36. All available indicators point to severe and persistent crisis in the African educational sector with gross enrollment ratios being consistently on the decline while attrition rates have been on the increase and the quality of education sliding. Between 1988 and 1990, out of the total female population. the gross enrollment ratios annually were 85, 64 and 32 per cent for primary, secondary and tertiary respectively. There is also a pronounced discrepancy in educational attainment between rural and urban communities and between males and females, a factor which has adverse implications for Africa's recovery and long-term development. Africa's education system is pyramidal, with a broad base at the primary level moving precipitously through the secondary level to a narrow apex at the tertiary level. Approximately 23 per cent of primary school graduates enters secondary institutions while less than 3 per cent of those who leave secondary school enter tertiary levels of education. The recent education policy in most countries which advocates an expansion of access to basic and primary education at the expense of secondary and tertiary education is based on a fallacious assumption that the most productive or functional level of education in Africa is the primary level, with the contrary holding true for the higher and tertiary levels. Implementation of this policy, unless carefully monitored, would saturate the economy with primary school leavers while only a handful of university and technical level graduates would be available with few skills to confront the integrated and technology-driven global economy.

37. The adult literacy rate of less than 50 per cent in Africa is the lowest in the world. In 1990. the adult literacy rate of males was 61 per cent while that of females was 41 per cent in sub-Saharan Africa. There is a high level of illiteracy among women, a serious impediment to development in the region. In most countries, the formal education system is still too small - or too few pupils emerge from it successfully - to reduce the absolute number of illiterates, while out-of-school non-formal education programmes are not sufficiently widespread to compensate. The continued crisis in the education sector can be explained, to a large extent, by the sharp decline in expenditure on education and the rapid population growth. Levels of illiteracy in the region have steadily been on the increase since the beginning of the last decade and are projected to reach 146.8 million by the year 2000, compared to 132.3 million in 1980.

38. The educational process reinforces existing gender inequalities which in turn shapes the perceptions that influence curriculum designers, textbook writers, audio-visual aids designers as well as teachers and pupils. Thus decisions on what is to be learnt at what level and by who and delivered by who are male-dominated. This renders the curriculum inappropriate in relation to gender.

(a) Training

39. Through training, several member States, in partnership with some bilateral agencies and United Nations organizations, have made some initiatives towards strengthening the capacities of African women. Some of these initiatives include training and extension services, access to credit and new technologies, and research and policy support. ECA's African Centre for Women, in collaboration with United Nations agencies and regional organizations, has also made efforts to strengthen the capacities of women farmers and entrepreneurs through staff training; training of extension workers; training women in technical and income-generating skills and food processing; training of women's groups and training of non-literate women through the use of audio-visual materials.

{{Vocational and technical education must be infused into the curriculum and implemented as part of the mainstream of education.}}

(b) Science and technology

40. Paragraph 191 of the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies states that women should be viewed as users and agents of change in science and technology, and their technological and managerial skills should be enhanced in order to increase national self-reliance in industrial production and to promote innovations in productive design, product adaptation and production techniques.

In a number of African countries, measures have been introduced to increase women's participation and equity between the sexes through revision of the school curricula and the promotion of equal opportunities in vocational training. However, the involvement of women in science and technology and their contribution to the process of industrialization is still minimal. {{Women must play a meaningful role in this process from the conceptualisation to final product development.}}

41. Although the low level of development in science and technology in the region affects the socio-economic well-being of the populations, the lives of women who are overburdened with the responsibilities of sustaining the livelihoods of their families are even more burdensome. In both rural and urban areas, women shoulder heavy and laborious tasks of agricultural activities, which could be greatly eased by the adoption of simple and appropriate technologies. The direct linkage between access to and application of science and technology and the lives of women cannot be overemphasized. There is no doubt that science and technology are the driving forces of economic and social development, {{hence the need to include the direct involvement of women}}. Technology is gradually changing African societies and it is essential that women benefit from it.

 

C. Women. culture, {{RELIGION}} the family and socialization

42. African societies are products of a unique historical evolution, enriched by diverse cultures, languages and composed of different ethnic or religious communities. Individuals within those societies have their collective identities as members of families, communities, ethnic or religions groups, nations and increasingly, a global society. The delicate balance between {{the rights of}} the individual and the society, and the groups within a society <<should >> {{must }} be respected. <<In particular, there should be active encouragement for the social integration of the disadvantaged, particularly women, the vulnerable and the marginalized in society, in order to reconnect and integrate them into the community, through the enhancement of their potential and by making all institutions of societies more accessible to them.

This should be done within the framework of their full participation in decisions that affect them .>> {{There must be active promotion and protection of the rights of individuals within the family and society. This must be done within a framework of shared values in order to promote and protect social diversity, stability, welfare and advancement towards a society for all.

The family should recognize the woman with a disability as a full member of the family. Cultural and religious practices that portray the woman with disability as a curse from the ancestors and gods should be done away with. Other siblings should be socialized to look at the woman with a disability positively and with love.

These positive family values will be carried to the community and the world at large. The religious institutions should also help in positive portrayal of women with disabilities. Fathers should be active participants in the upbringing of their disabled daughters.}}

(a) Culture

43. {{African culture is dynamic}}. In Africa, heavy responsibilities fall disproportionately on women who have had to assume increasingly new roles in addition to their traditional ones. <<The role of the women in holding the family fabric and functions together is therefore a critical one.>> On the other hand, men have been losing some of their traditional roles without taking on new ones. This has resulted in inordinate family dynamics such that the working hours of the woman have increased while the hours spent by men working for the well-being of the family have greatly decreased.<< It is thus necessary to address this imbalance by encouraging men to share family responsibilities for the well-being of women, men and the family as a whole. >> {{It is thus necessary for men to share family responsibilities to redress this imbalance for the well-being of the family.}} << At the same time, some cultures often continue to perpetuate traditional practices that are harmful to the health of women. >> {{ At the same time some cultures and religions perpetuate beliefs and practices that infringe on the rights of women and are harmful to their well-being.}} << In this connection, some countries have adopted legal and constitutional measures aimed at ameliorating the situation of women by providing access to education and better quality of life. A strategy for information, education and communication (IEC) aiming at improving the image and role of African women through the media and school manuals should be developed. >> {{In this connection , some countries have adopted legal and constitutional measures aimed at eliminating these practices.}}

RELIGION

{{Culture and tradition in Africa are greatly influenced by religion and religious beliefs. The development of a healthy society is the responsibilty of both men and women, and the role of religion in this respect is critical. Misinterpretation of religious texts and religious intolerance often lead to conflict situations and perpetuation of the oppression of women. In these situations the rights and well-being of women have been compromised.}}

(b) The family

44. The International Year of the Family, 1994 in which the "International Family Charter" has been formulated by United Nations Member States and which will be adopted in Paris in December 1994, focuses on one of humankind's oldest social institutions. <<yet the pressures and rapid changes of today have contributed to a breakdown in the central role of the African family. Traditionally, the family is the provider of values, behaviour. character formation, the means for economic progress and cultural values that influence work attitudes, ethics and accountability for the individual and society.>> {{The family is the basic unit of the society which establishes behavioural patterns, attitudes, and cultural values that influence the conduct of individuals in society. Various factors have contributed to a change in the nature and concept of the African family.}} To this end, the extended working hours of the woman is a reality that must be addressed in order to balance the family and professional responsibilities. <<Politically, traditional leadership among African families is a link between communities, enhancing tolerance and bridging ethnic and political differences.>> Contemporary problems have greatly challenged the fibre of the African family, e.g. economic deterioration has impoverished many households.

Unemployment and migration to urban centres have disrupted family relations. <<and family social systems>>. As a consequence, young family members have lost the social, economic and emotional support of the family and often resort to delinquent behaviour and drug abuse. {{Violence against and girls within the family is a fundamental violation of human rights. Much of this violence has remained unreported and unadressed.}}

45. In addition, recurrent natural disasters, civil strife and ethnic <<rivalries>> {{conflicts}} have created serious hardship for families. The displacement of families during these crises deprives them of the support of the extended family system and this has serious social and cultural implications. <<Families are>> {{The family is}} the primary source of economic and social protection for those who cannot support themselves due to disability, illness, age, unemployment, displacement <<or>> {{and}} other causes. In this context, the burden falls disproportionately on women who have had to <<assume increasingly other roles >> {{increasingly assume greater responsibilities }}in addition to their traditional ones. << When family support is not available, the community or >> {{ Governments }} must provide assistance through social welfare and social protection schemes and programmes <<including targeted programmes on women >> {{especially targeted at women.}} Single-parent, particularly single-mother families make up a large proportion of the poor in many African societies in recent times. Governments <<and community organizations >>should make particular efforts to ensure that single-parent families receive the social support they need <<either>> in the form of economic support for the family <<or>> {{ and}} child-care support for a single working parent.

(c) Socialisation

46. <<Socialization is the process by which a child is taught the roles he or she is to play in society.>> {{Socialization is the process by which an individuals value system, self perception and role definition are established}}.<<This process determines how adult men and women behave as chief agents of socialization in families, schools and communities. In Africa, roles assigned to men and women are pre-determined and different.>> The family as <<an>> {{the primary}} agent of socialization assigns different status, values and roles to girls and boys. Discrimination against women and girls starts before birth with parental and societal attitudes that promote a preference for sons over daughters. {{In many African countries, women's disadvantaged position, translates into low self esteem, socio-economic deprivation, low political motivation and lop-sided educational policies, which blur women's parcipation and contribution to society.}} Young women and girls should be accorded equal opportunities to grow and to develop their full potential in their productive and reproductive roles. There must be concerted effort to promote a cultural environment where girls and boys grow and work together as equal partners for sustainable development and peace. <<In many African countries, women's culturally disadvantaged position, low self-esteem, lack of confidence coupled with lack of time and low motivation limit their capacity to take advantage of opportunities available to them in order to alleviate poverty.>> Social and cultural traditions and practices should be reformed towards a common civil code that upholds the dignity of women as equal partners with men in the family including <<removal>> {{elimination}} of gender bias in matters of marriage, divorce, {{child}} custody and property rights.

D. Women's health, {{Reproductive Health (including}} family planning) and population

47. The l992 Dakar/Ngor Declaration on Population. Family and Sustainable Development stated, inter alia, that population policies and programmes should be part of sustainable development strategies. {{The Programme of Action of ICPD 1994 moved this further (principle 2) to recognise "that human beings are at the centre of sustainable development.}} But the inability to integrate population factors in African development plans effectively, in a bid to harmonize population and economic growth rates, still persists. Africa had an estimated population of 644 million in 1992 which is expected to grow at annual rate of 2.9 per cent to the year 2000. The region has the world's highest fertility rate, the lowest life expectancy (49 years for males and 52 for females), the highest infant mortality rate (114 deaths per 1000 live births); the highest maternal mortality rate and the highest dependency ratio 47 per cent under 15 years and only 3 per cent over 65). {{In addition, unsafe abortion accounts for up to 30% of maternal mortality in some African countries}} <<In addition,>> In the 1980s, population growth rates exceeded economic growth rates in 32 African countries. The gap between fertility and mortality is widening; it doubled between 1972 to 1994 and is expected to double again by 2017. These demographic trends have had many negative consequences on the health and quality of women's lives. The unavailability of adequate health services and inaccessibility to information, coupled with the presence of chronic diseases such as malaria and malnutrition, leave many women unable to cope with the physical demands of pregnancy {{and also lead to high incidence of low birth weight babies.}} Consequently, maternal morbidity is widespread and the life time risk of maternal death for African women is one in 20 compared to one in 10,000 in developed countries. The emergence of HIV/AIDS and the multiple effects it has on women adds another dimension to their already vulnerable health status. The rising rates of unwanted and unplanned pregnancies among women under 20 years of age not only compromise their reproductive health but deny a majority of them opportunities to complete their education. {{Teenage pregnancy with the attendant high risk, female morbidity e.g. visico vaginal fistula (VVF), infertility, female genital mutilation, all constitute important public health problems in the region.}} <<and acquire decision-making skills which will enable them to make informed choices about their fertility.>>

{{Women with disabilities are first and foremost women with reproductive needs. Health facilities and family planning services should be made available to them by making the structures barrier free and providers friendly to women with disabilities. Women with disabilities should be recognised as people who know their needs and should be consulted when planning services for them.}}

48. In this context, population-{{related}} policies and programmes in Africa must strive to improve the status of women while at the same time seeking to reduce the rates of population growth, infant and child mortality and maternal mortality.

Therefore, the full participation and partnership of both men and women is required in both their productive and reproductive lives, including shared responsibilities in the care and nurturance of children as well as the experience of reproductive {{health and}} rights, {{as defined in Paragraph 7.6 of the ICPD 1994 document.}} In this context, the provision of quality family planning services is essential. Such services must ensure that both men and women have the right to be informed and have access to safe, effective and affordable methods of family planning of their choice, at each stage of the reproductive life cycle, because family planning is not only a policy of limitation of pregnancy but a policy of prevention and protection against sexually transmitted diseases.

Thus, the complete integration of the full range of reproductive health services in the primary health care systems as well as their decentralized delivery and management will contribute significantly to the promotion of safe motherhood for women and the achievement of responsible parenthood for both men and women.

49. While it is acknowledged that African economies can no longer provide free health services to all, it is imperative likewise to acknowledge that a very large proportion of women constitute the poorest of the poor. It is therefore necessary to target subsidized health services to such women who also carry the burden of providing health care to their families, in order to improve their situation. To reach these objectives, IEC strategies and efficient services in the field of family health should be adopted to promote family planning and improve maternal and child health, particularly in the rural areas.

E. Women, environment and {{sustainable development}} <<natural resource management>>

50. <<Widespread evidence from the African region indicates that poverty, population growth and environmental degradation are inextricably intertwined. Poverty is a major cause and consequence of environmental degradation and is compounded by scarcity and depletion of resources for the initiation, stimulation and promotion of sustainable development for a growing population.>> {{There is a need for a new development paradigm that combines environmental sustainability with gender equality. Such a paradigm should also stop the undiscriminate and undemocratic exploitation of natural resources at the national and international level that results in the marginalisation of people rather than development of people}}. In the absence of alternative means of livelihood, poverty is strongly linked to the mismanagement of natural resources and the consequent environmental pressure which results in environmental degradation. Unsustainable patterns of production and consumption, both in developed and developing countries, do not reflect adequate concern for environmental conservation and rehabilitation in developing countries. Natural resources are central to the livelihood of poor rural households and it is women who are responsible for processing and, to a lesser but increasing extent, growing and processing agricultural products. Women are key environmental managers, with profound knowledge of plants, animals and ecological processes with which they are intimately involved.

Poor women often have no choice but to exploit natural resources in order to survive even though they may possess knowledge to protect the environment and its sustainability.

{{There is need to make women with disabilities visible in their role as managers and users of the environment.}}

51. At The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in 1992 culminated in the recognition of the crucial role of women in sustaining the physical, natural and socio-economic environment. UNCED adopted the "Global Action for Women Towards Sustainable Development" as elaborated in chapter 24 of Agenda 21. Experiences in many parts of Africa have shown that women play a critical role in environmental management, conservation and protection. They are also the first to suffer as environmental changes affect their ability to obtain firewood, energy, water, food and other resources for household and economic activities. Ongoing rapid environmental and economic degradation as well as natural and man-made disasters in Africa drastically affect the lives of women and children in rural and urban areas.

Regrettably, women have been largely absent in decision making and in the implementation of environmental projects and programmes.

Furthermore, their commitment, experiences and knowledge in natural resources management and environmental protection has not been recognized. Key concern for promoting women's role in natural resources management should focus on their access to and control over natural resources such as land, water and energy. A crucial constraint for women's involvement in both agriculture and environmental activities is their lack of natural resource tenure-rights, information, extension services and training in natural resource management and sustainable agriculture. Lack of appropriate technology and lack of recognition and legitimization of indigenous science and technology, particularly women's knowledge, has contributed to environmental degradation, food insecurity and increased women's work. The direct link between women, natural resources, appropriate science and technology and sustainable development cannot be overemphasized.

 

51.{{(bis)Women, Human Settlements and Sustainable Development

1) Land and Property Rights

Despite women's active role in the managmenet and creation of the urban and rural environment, they are discimrinated against with respect to their access to and contrl over land and poverty.

Traditions and religious practicies more than laws prevent women inheriting and controlling land and buildings on an equal basis with men. Women in Africa work on land over whih they have no right or control. Their poverty cannot change unless they gain something out of the work they do. Women need land to be used as collateral when they want to borrow money from banks. Women's equal rights in this respect must be treated as a fundamental human right, with the full backing of laws, legal advice services, public awareness compagnies and human rights education.

2) Shelter and forced evictions

One of the most basic human rights is the right to a place to live and the right not to be forcibly evicted.

Women are not equitably involved in the decision making of the design of the home, the choice of the area to live in, the planning and deevlopment of the heighbourhood and even more imporatlay, the planning, defvelopmenta nd maintenance of our villages, towns, municipalities and cities. There are few women architects but they are seldom involved when houses are built. Women have useful views on what residential houses should look like to cater to children's and women's needs.

Forced evictions affect both men and women although women are the ones most affected because of their gender-assigned roles in the home.}}

 

F. The political empowerment of women

52. Democracy is instrumentally linked to human rights and, as defined in the 1993 Vienna Programme of Action, it is based on the freely expressed will of people (men, women and youth) to determine their own political, economic, social and cultural systems. In Africa, the process of democratization has been put in motion with varying success. Given the long-standing discrimination against women in Africa, specific and critical measures should be taken to enable women's full participation in decision making as well as access to all organizations of society. The concept of civil and political rights as well as economic, social and cultural rights has provided individuals and groups subjected to discrimination with the means for correcting injustice and enhancing social integration. African Governments can promote this process by creating a climate of tolerance for the rights of all persons, particularly women, by clearly stating the rights which all can expect to enjoy and by ensuring that their legal systems are open to all and effective as remedy for limitations on those rights.

53. Women constitute half of humankind and throughout the world they enter all areas of activity, thereby modifying humankind's vision of the world. Women therefore are half of its resource of talent, ability and potential, and their participation in decision making is logical because they are the major contributors to national economies through their paid and unpaid labour; politically, half of those served and represented by governments are women. Women's participation in the decision-making process worldwide has been one of those areas where there has been little notable progress. In 1993, only six countries had women heads of government while the average proportion of women in parliaments worldwide had dropped to 10 from 12 per cent in 1989.

54. In Africa, the low representation of women in the political decision-making process can be attributed mainly to socio-cultural perceptions and inhibitions; lack of finances; lack of political commitment on the part of women; lack of goodwill by men; lack of civic education; multiple roles of women and gender stereotypes; and lack of rural infrastructure. Under the circumstances, women are denied the opportunity to play their economic and intellectual roles to the fullest extent, besides that of wife and mother.

Another impediment to women's participation in the political decision-making process is the high illiteracy rate among women in the region. This has repercussions on women's awareness, as well as on their level of participation in political life. This means that the bulk of political activity by women is carried out mostly by their educated elite, which constitutes a very tiny proportion of the total population of women. The limited participation by women in political life is closely associated with the less visible factors such as uneven distribution of roles and responsibilities between men and women, persistent differentiation in the field of training and occupation and the economic dependency of women.

{{Women with disabilities should be included among the nominated members of parliaments in all contries. Ten percent of all policy bodies dealing with issues concerning women should be women with disabilities. This would ensure their visibility as well as give them a voice.}}

55. Similarly, both at the regional and international levels, the representation of women is still low especially at the higher levels of professional categories. This situation persists despite the fact that the majority of African countries have ratified various United Nations conventions supporting the empowerment of women. Thus whereas globally there are a few women heading international organizations such as UNHCR and UNFPA, no African regional organizations has appointed women to the top echelon of their hierarchy. Notwithstanding the fact that the entry of women in their employment ranks has been facilitated by the establishment of women's units, organizations such as OAU, ECA, PTA, ECOWAS and ADB need to tap the immense potential and alternative world-view and perspectives of health management, economic development and conflict resolution, among others, that women have and which should be used in solving the multiplicity of the region's problems.

56. Policies to promote social and political integration must guarantee opportunities for women's full participation in decisions that affect their interests. A guiding objective in this very critical area of concern is the need to engender and strengthen factors that promote the full participation of women in power structures and decision making at all levels. This should encompass the participation of women in a wide range of organizations and institutions in the public and private sectors. This is one of the most critical areas of this Platform in terms of its potential for strengthening democracy, for ensuring equality in the long term and for enriching the development process with diversity and innovation. Several initiatives have been taken within the region towards enhancing popular participation; for instance, the Khartoum Declaration of 1988 which was the outcome of the International Conference on the Human Dimension of Africa's Economic Recovery and Development, attended by African policy and decislon makers.

Similarly, the Abuja Declaration on Participatory Development: The Role of Women in Africa in the 1990s was very specific on the measures that have to be undertaken in this field. Another milestone was the Arusha Declaration of 1990 (African Charter for Popular Participation in Development and Transformation) which serves as a guideline for governments, NGOs, grass-roots organizations, youth and women's groups, etc., for the implementation of the principles of the Charter, namely human rights, democracy, development of a civil society, good governance and accountability.

 

G. Women's legal and human rights

57. The <<issue>> {{concept}} of human rights is fundamental to all aspects of human development. It is a fundamental principle of the United Nations, its Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Human rights are inalienable birthrights for every human being regardless of race, religion, creed, nationality or sex and they are not dependent on the State. Since 1949, numerous human rights instruments and resolutions have been proclaimed. The numerous resolutions in favour of equal rights <<for>> {{of}} women and girls, {{the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, The African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights,}} the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), the African Heads of State and Government Declaration on the Rights and Welfare of the Child and the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child are all guidelines for improving the legal and human rights status for women. The United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, now signed by over 34 countries in the African region, explicitly acknowledges that extensive discrimination against women, which continues to exist, violates the principle of equality of rights and respect for human dignity.

58. Most African countries have provided in their constitutions for fundamental rights and freedoms to both men and women and have mandated the equality de jure for all their citizens in line with provisions of the Convention and the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies. A recent comparative study on national law on the rights and status of women in the region shows that some progressive changes are taking place in specific areas affecting women but that the changes have been made in a piecemeal and uncoordinated manner thus situations exist where the potential advancement in a certain area is negated by the lack of change in another intricately related area. {{It is important to include women with disabilities in any examination of and change in laws and policies concerning the human rights of women.}} African countries also have the problem of constitutional rights being abrogated by customary, {{arbitrary}} and/or religious laws. For exarnple, there are countries where, regardless of age, employment or civil status, women remain as minors under the guardianship of husbands, fathers << or even>>,brothers {{or/and even sons.}} In some countries, and despite the provisions of the right to work stipulated in labour laws, married women may not work if their husbands refuse on the basis that they are the heads of the households. In others, there are provisions in the laws that a woman who marries a man from another nationality loses her citizenship and this will further complicate the situation with regard to children. While there are countries in which a woman, irrespective of her marital status, can own and manage property in her own right, sue and be sued in her own name, there are countries where a woman cannot appear in court without the permission or the assistance of her husband or male relative.

59. <<Women's legal and human rights >> {{National laws and policies}} in Africa should be evaluated and reformed against the background of the 1993 Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action of the World Conference on Human Rights. The Conference took historic new steps to promote and protect the rights of women, children and indigenous peoples, {{etc}}., and supported the creation of a new mechanism, a Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women. Paragraph 18 of the Vienna Declaration stated explicitly that the human rights of women and of the girl-child are an inalienable, integral and indivisible part of universal human rights. It called for the full and equal participation of women in political, civil, economic, social and cultural life, at the national, regional and international levels, and the eradication of all forms of discrimination on grounds of sex. It further stated that gender-based violence and all forms of sexual harassment and exploitation, including those resulting from cultural prejudice and international trafficking are incompatible with the dignity and worth of the human person and must be eliminated. In paragraph 36, the Vienna Declaration underlines the importance of the integration and full participation of women as both agents and beneficiaries in the development process, and reiterates the objectives established on global action for women towards sustainable development in the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and also in chapter 24 of Agenda 21. The African Platform for Action fully endorses these objectives and obligations for the legal and human rights of women. {{Government should ratify and implement all those international treaties and standards which promote and protect the rights of women and the girl child.}}

(a) Women with special needs

60. Despite the increasing pressure for greater participation, large numbers of women continue to be excluded from the benefits of development.

61. Paragraph 277 of the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies observed that there is an increasing number of categories of women who, because of their special characteristics, experience not only the common problems experienced by all, but also specific difficulties due to either their socio-economic and health conditions, disability, minority status or a combination of these factors.

62. In para. 280, the Nairobi Strategies recommended that additional efforts should be directed towards ensuring the gainful and productive inclusion of these categories of women in mainstream development and in political activities, with priority emphasis being placed on income-generating opportunities. Further, there should be independent and sustained improvement of their condition through the full integration and active participation of women as agents and beneficiaries of development at the same time.

63. During the last decade, the conditions of such special groups of women in Africa have become even worse due to the interplay of a number of external and internal factors, as discussed elsewhere in this Platform for Action.

64. Article 11(e) of the 1979 Women's Convention is explicit on the rights of women with special needs and states that all States Parties should take appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in the field of employment, in order to ensure, on the basis of equality of men and women, the same rights in particular "The right of social security, particularly in cases of retirement, unemployment, sickness, invalidity and old age and other incapacity to work. as well as the right to said leave"

65. Aged and disabled women, {{widows, internally displaced persons, women in conflict situation, refugees, girls and adolescents, and female headed households}} are normally excluded from participating as full members of the community. Policies and programmes developed for such needy women therefore must be geared towards the social integration of these marginalized and disadvantaged women and to guarantee better opportunities for them.

66. The 1975 Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons and the 1982 World Programme of Action in respect of Disabled Persons provide overall frameworks for action, but also point out that problems specific to women have not yet been fully appreciated by society because they are not fully realized and understood.

67. Article 18.4 of the 1981 African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights states that "The aged and the disabled shall also have the right to special measures of protection in keeping with their physical and moral needs".

68. Policies and programmes concerning the aged and disabled women, {{widows, internally displaced persons, women in conflict situation, refugees, girls and adolescents, and female headed households}} must focus on the equalization of opportunities and the contributions they can make to society, as well as on their dignity and rights as citizens rather than as objects of charity or welfare.

(b) Violence against women

69. Women are subjected to violence and to the threat of violence in their daily relationships. Violence deprives women of their ability to achieve full equality. It threatens their safety, their freedom and their autonomy. Violence against women is a fundamental violation of human rights which include the right to life, liberty and personal, mental and physical integrity, the right not to be subject to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment, the right to equal protection before the law, and equality within the family. Much violence against women goes unreported particularly when violence occurs in the home. The majority of women do not speak out against violence but keep silent as victims for years because of fear, shame or a misplaced feeling that they are somehow responsible. The psychological, emotional and economic conditions of women subjected to physical and emotional abuse may in fact alter their perception of reality in such a way that they perceive themselves as completely helpless and unable to make choices or escape.

70. Although it is noted that in some African countries, violence against women is a criminal offence, many governments <<do not appear to be addressing >> {{ does not address}} the issue.

<<Thus>>, {{Traditional}} practices, {{rapes, female genital mutilation, wife battery, property grabbing}} are harmful to the health of women and children are rampant. These practices do not allow victims, usually children, the right to object. Although many governments are now concerned with the issue, few have taken legal or constitutional steps to stop the practice. A recent important development is the recognition of women's rights to attain the highest standard of sexual and reproductive health, free from discrimination, coercion and violence as expressed in various {{international}} human rights <<documents internationally accepted>> {{ instruments}}.

71. This Platform emphasizes the need to analyze the roots of violence against women and girls, be they historical, social, cultural or religious in origin. A gender analysis of violence against women could lead to solutions that are integrated to include both women and men. Stateless women such as refugees and displaced women who no longer have their governments' legal protection should be highlighted because they are particularly vulnerable. Taking into consideration the inadequacies of the support structures for women victims of violence, this Platform recommends that governments and NGOs should establish and/or reinforce information and other support services.

 

H. Women {{Refugees, Internally Displaced, in Armed Conflict Situations and}} In the peace process.

72. At present, several African countries are embroiled in war, <<civil strifeor conflict <<problems related to Africa.>> {{Conflict caused by combination of factors including massive violations of human rights and politically motivated ethnic violence.this situations often impact disproportionately on women resulting in violence, involuntary displacement and flight from the country of origin. Out of an estimated global refugee population of some 20 million. nearly 35 % are in Africa. Women and children constitute roughly 80 % of this population. The vast majority of destitute refugees, mainly are of rural background. They are located in countries facing major economic problems and often in the most remote, poorest and least developed areas. These countries are often unable to absorb the extra burden of refugees and may not be able to provide essential services tot heir own citizens who are already experiencing unprecedented levels of hardship. In Africa}} the population of internally displaced persons is estimated to be 16 million persons, including 4.5 million in the Sudan, more than I million in Ethiopia. 825,000 in Angola, 2 million in Mozambique, 2 million In Somalia, 500.000 in Uganda, 4.2 million in South Africa and 2 million in Rwanda. {{The absence of a specific mechanism or support system to deal with the plight of the internally displaced renders this group particularly vulnerable and less likely to receive appropriate attention from the international community. The creation of a specific international mechanism to recognise and assist internally displaced population must, therefore, be a priority}}. << Women and children represent 80 per cent of these displaced and refugee populations. >> These {{armed}} conflicts take a heavy toll on human life both directly and indirectly. Armed violence leads directly to heavy casualties among women and children.

73. But the indirect toll is far heavier {{on women and children, who are often civilian non combatants}}. By disrupting basic social and health services and by diverting scarce physical, human.

financial. material, scientific and technological resources to the development of the machinery of death and destruction. millions of children die from preventable diseases. Critical problems which take the heaviest toll on children include nutritional anaemia.

malnutrition-related infection, diarrhoea and other immunizable diseases, an especially pernicious effect of war are the psycho-social stresses resulting from the breakdown of traditional family structures. This breakdown is reflected in the increase of female-headed households, <<unmarried >> {{single}} mothers and abandoned and orphaned children. Violations of the fundamental rights of women and girls are widespread and universal during times of armed conflict and strife. These violations include torture, rape, murder, disappearance, maltreatment <<and neglect.>> {{The widespread and indiscriminate use of anti personnel landmines, used increasingly in internal conflicts has caused untold human suffering and involuntary mass displacement of populations. Such use of landmines inflict excessive damage on civilians in post conflict situations.}}

74. {{Women often outside the decision making processes related to conflict management and peace - building initiative}}. Before conflicts occur, women can be agents of peace and conflict prevention by identifying root causes and opportunities for reconciliation. During the collapse of communities, the role of women is also crucial. They continue to pass on culture, traditions and values to the next generation They preserve human dignity and social order in the midst of chaos and civil strife. They are the agents of change for building a new society from the ashes of the old. Although women are usually outside the decision-making processes which have produced conflicts in the region, they have shown their concern for the violent inter-State conflicts by calling for a joint ECA/OAU meeting which took place in November 1993 in Kampala, Uganda - the Regional Conference on Women, Peace and Development. An important outcome of that Conference is the Kampala Action Plan on Women and Peace. In the same sense, the OAU Heads of States and Government at the June 1993 Summit established, within OAU, a Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution.

75. Education is a key factor in development and peace processes.

The lack or low level of education of girls and women is a main constraint to the empowerment of women politically, economically and most specifically in the peace process. It limits their access to both the productive resources and the power structure. National governments and NGOs are urged to make every possible effort to improve the peace capacities and capabilities of girls and women.

Peace education <<is a life-long process that is based on the concept of partnership between men and women. It >> illuminates and advocates the necessity of eradicating all types of violence in society, at family and community levels. It encourages all people, and in particular girls and women, to take more interest in politics, international affairs and all aspects of decision making.

The participation of women in conflict resolution is their right and their experience is valuable. Governments in Africa should aim at gender parity in peace negotiation and conflict resolutions and should take concrete steps to provide women and men with the necessary training in this area. Moreover, measures should be taken to bring women into peacekeeping, both in civilian and military roles and to reinforce women's roles as peace educators in the family and in society at large.

 

I. Mainstreaming <<of gender>> {{sex and race}} disaggregated data

76. Women are often invisible in statistics and if their unpaid housework {{informal sector activities and agricultural input}} were computed as productive output in national income accounts, global output would be increased by 20- more than 30 per cent.

77. Paragraph 364 of the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies stated that a stronger data and research base on women should be developed in developing countries and in regional commissions, in collaboration with the appropriate specialized agencies and that the sharing of information and research data should be encouraged.

The Nairobi Strategies also recommended that data and information systems at the national level should be strengthened or, where absent, should be introduced.

78. During the last decade, Africa;n countries have made inadequate efforts to develop the necessary <<gender>> {{sex}}-based and <<gender>> {{race}}-disaggregated data base and indicators, on the basis of inputs from national and local levels.

Even more lacking has been the inclusion of perspectives on and by women in the scarce data available.

79. Lack of accurate and reliable data presents a handicap for the proper assessment of the contribution of women, and the relative improvements in their status in the various sectors. A realistic assessment of the level of women's advancement requires the collection, analysis, utilization and dissemination of <<gender-aggregated >> {{sex and race disaggregated}} statistical data.

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